Immunoassay for toxic congeners of polychlorinated biphenyls

ABSTRACT

The present invention provides a method for determining qualitatively or quantitatively the presence of toxic congeners of polychlorinated biphenyl in a test sample. The method includes the steps of: providing a known quantity of antibodies to the toxic polychlorinated biphenyl congener; providing a competitor that will bind to said antibodies in competition with the toxic polychlorinated biphenyl congener and having a lower affinity to said antibodies than said antibodies have to the toxic polychlorinated biphenyl congener; incubating said antibodies and said competitor in the presence of a test sample; and detecting the presence of the toxic polychlorinated biphenyl toxic congener in the test sample.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/259,046, filed Jun. 13, 1994 now U.S. Pat. No. 5,538,852.

The present invention was made with government support under Grant No. 1 R43 CA62679-01 awarded by the National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The government has certain rights in the invention.

TECHNICAL FIELD

This invention relates to methods for detecting or quantifying toxic congeners of polychlorinated biphenyls in a test sample by immunoassay, and to hapten and competitor reagents for use in such an analysis.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are significant environmental pollutants that generally require complex and expensive methods for their analyses. Polychlorinated biphenyls are a class of discrete chemical compounds, called congeners, having the general formula C₁₂H_(x)Cl_(y), where x=0-9 and y=10-x. PCBs are produced by chlorinating the biphenyl compound at one through ten of the available positions to form a mono to decachlorobiphenyl.

PCBs were commercially produced as complex mixtures for a variety of uses, including dielectric fluids in capacitors and transformers. A major producer, Monsanto Corporation, marketed PCBs under the trade name Aroclor® from 1930 to 1977. Aroclor® PCBs were marketed for use in transformers, capacitors, and many other applications. Their chemical and physical stability, and their electrical insulating properties, led to the commercial utility of the PCBs.

The chemical and physical stability of PCBs is also the primary reason PCBs pose such a significant environmental contamination problem. Because PCBs do not readily degrade in the environment after disposal or dissemination, and are lipophilic, they are persistent and tend to accumulate in living organisms, such as humans and animals. In 1966, PCBs were found in eagles, herring and other Swedish environmental samples. S. Jensen, et al., Nature, 224, 247-250 (1969). Since then, PCBs have been shown to be nearly ubiquitous environmental pollutants, occurring in most human and animal adipose samples, milk, sediment and numerous other matrices.

As early as 1936, occupational exposure was reported to cause toxic effects, leading to establishment of workplace threshold limit values. Animal studies with both commercial mixtures and individual congeners have shown a variety of chronic toxic effects. National Research Counsel, “Polychlorinated Biphenyls,” National Academy of Science, Washington, D.C. (1979). PCB contaminated cooking oil caused a total of over 1200 “Yusho” patients in 1968 in western Japan. The clinical manifestations include various somatic complaints, low birth weights, chloracne and pigmentation. K. Higuchi, PCB Poisoning and Pollution, Academic Press, New York (1978). The discovery of widespread environmental occurrence, increased general environmental concern, and an apparent link to carcinogenesis culminated in the regulation of PCBs under the Toxic Substances Control Act in the United States.

Several EPA rules governing the use of PCBs are of concern to analytical chemists, as they require determination of PCBs in various matrices. Restrictions on the use of PCBs in the United States and other countries has made disposal of PCBs a major concern. Large quantities of PCB containing products, such as transformer and capacitor oils, are being removed from service and must be disposed of properly. For example, in the United States, the allowed methods of disposal are keyed both to concentration and to the matrix. If the PCB concentration in a transformer oil is 500 ppm or greater, disposal in a high efficiency incinerator is required. If the concentration is between 50 and 500 ppm other methods of disposal may be used.

While PCB regulations and disposal requirements differ from country to country, there is a common analytical interest in determining the presence and amount of PCBs in the environment, and in materials that are potential sources of PCBs to the environment. Regardless of the laws and rules, the analytical needs are similar: reliable, practical, and sensitive methods that can determine PCBs in a variety of matrices.

The present methods for detecting PCBs include mass spectrophotometry, x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, gas chromatography, and high-performance liquid chromatography. One commonly employed analytical technique involves gas chromatography with ion-capture or mass spectrometer detection. Instrumental methods are relatively accurate, but expensive and time consuming. In addition, they require sophisticated analytical instrumentation and skilled operators.

A qualitative method for detecting PCBs in soil and oil based on dehalogenation followed by detection of the liberated chloride, is commercially available from the Dexsil Corporation. This method only measures total organic chlorine, and is prone to a wide variety of interferences.

Two papers on the development of PCB immunoassays have been published. M. I. Luster, et al., Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol., 50, 147-155 (1979); W. H. Newsome and J. B. Shields, Intern. J. Environ. Anal. Chem., 10, 295-304 (1981). Both papers describe the development of a radioimmunoassay (RIA) for specific PCB congeners which gave fair to poor specificity and sensitivity for the broad range of significant PCB congeners and congener mixtures. Also, U.S. Pat. No. 4,456,691, issued to S. Stark, teaches the preparation of polyclonal antibodies to PCBs using Aroclor® 1254 which has been aminated, diazotized and coupled to Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA). The antisera was evaluated by an RIA. M. Franek, et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 40, 1559-1565 (1992) teach a radioimmunoassay method for the detection of PCBs.

In European Patent Application No. 0 455 058 A2 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,145,790 Mattingly et al. (the '790 patent) describe an immunoassay method for detecting the presence or amount of polychlorinated biphenyls in a test sample. This assay is not congener specific. It is desirable to have an immunoassay method with greater sensitivity than disclosed by Applicants in the European application and in the '790 patent.

The widespread occurrence of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in the environment requires a comprehensive assessment of their environmental impact. This assessment is made more complicated by the recent realization that different forms of PCB exhibit different toxicity. There are many ways to distribute chlorines on a biphenyl ring system. These different structural forms, isomers, or congeners of PCB vary in toxicity. This is particularly complicated for PCBs since there are 209 congeners of PCB, which vary dramatically in their toxicity. The awareness of the varied toxicity of PCB congeners is recent and the analytical methods used to analyze the toxic PCB congeners is cumbersome and expensive.

The present methods for the congener specific analysis of PCBs typically use high-resolution gas chromatography with ion capture or mass spectrometer detection systems. D. E. Wells, et al., Intern. J. Environ. Anal. Chem., 47, 75-97 (1992). Although these methods are relatively accurate, they are also very expensive and time consuming because of their reliance on sophisticated analytical instrumentation and skilled operators. There is growing recognition that specific analysis of the most toxic PCB congeners in the environment is required for an objective evaluation of risk and environmental impact. However, the time, effort and expense associated with the toxic congener specific analysis places substantial constraints on the scope of risk assessment and site evaluation studies. C. S. Creaser, et al., Chemosphere, 25, 1981-2008 (1992). Immunoassay based analytical methods have demonstrated value for economical and specific, high throughput screening and for quantitiative analyses of many environmental analytes. Moreover, immunoassay can be accomplished with minimal sample preparation and instrumentation.

Accordingly, there is a need for a reliable and sensitive immunoassay for detecting or quantifying toxic PCB congeners. In particular there is need for an immunoassay that can offer significant advantages in cost, personnel training, and equipment requirements over present immunoassays and that provides substantially improved assay performance over known methods for detecting or quantifying toxic PCB congeners.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a graph of the present invention which illustrates standard curves obtained using the ELISA format, Hapten I (plot 1) or Exemplified Competitor 11 (plot 3) as the competition reagent, and Aroclor® 1248 as the analyte.

FIG. 2 is a schematic of the synthesis of a hapten.

FIG. 3 is a schematic of the synthesis of a second hapten.

FIG. 4 presents structures of exemplified competitors. Numbering of the competitors has been continued from the exemplified competitors on I-IV of the application.

FIG. 5 is a schematic of the synthesis of a preferred hapten for producing antibodies for use in methods of detecting or quantifying toxic congeners of PCB.

FIG. 6 presents structures of Competitors A-E.

FIG. 7 shows results of an indirect enzyme immunoassay (EIA) using competitor C, polyclonal sera derived from hapten VII, and, as analytes, 3,3′,4,4′-tetrachlorobiphenyl, 3,3′,4,4′5-pentachlorobiphenyl, and 2,2′,4,4′,5,5′-hexachlorobiphenyl.

FIG. 8 shows results of a direct EIA using competitor C, polyclonal sera derived from hapten VII, and, as analytes, 3,3′,4,4′-tetrachlorobiphenyl and 2,2′,4,4′,5,5′-hexachlorobiphenyl.

FIG. 9 shows results of a direct EIA using competitor D, a hapten VII derived monoclonal antibody, and, as analytes, six PCB congeners. The lines are 4-parameter logistic fits of the data. The estimated I₅₀ values were 0.9 and 1.2 ppb for 3,4,3′,4′-tetra- and 3,4,3′,4′,5′-pentachloro-biphenyl, respectively.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention provides a method of determining the presence or amount of toxic polychlorinated biphenyl congener or congeners in a test sample. That is, the present invention provides both qualitative and quantitative analysis methods for toxic PCB congeners. This method is an immunoassay that preferably utilizes a competitor reagent to accurately detect the presence and the amount of toxic polychlorinated biphenyl congener in a test sample, at greater sensitivity than currently used immunoassays. The competitors of the present invention compete with toxic PCB congeners present in a test sample for binding sites on antibodies that recognize and bind to PCBs. Antibodies can be raised by conjugating a hapten of the invention with a protein carrier and injecting the conjugate into an animal. Competitors and haptens of the invention can be used in a number of assay formats to detect toxic PCB congeners at greater sensitivity.

An assay method of the present invention comprises the steps of: a) providing a known quantity of antibodies to polychlorinated biphenyl; b) providing a competitor that will bind to said antibodies in competition with polychlorinated biphenyl; c) incubating said antibodies and said competitor in the presence of a test sample; and d) detecting the presence of polychlorinated biphenyl in the test sample.

Preferably, to improve sensitivity said competitor will have a lower affinity to said antibodies than said antibodies have to the toxic polychlorinated biphenyl congener. Also, the step of incubating the antibodies and competitor in the presence of a test sample is preferably carried out for a period of time sufficient to obtain a reproducible relationship between the quantity of competitor bound to the antibodies and the quantity of toxic polychlorinated biphenyl congener in the test sample. Preferably, the step of detecting the presence of toxic polychlorinated biphenyl congener involves measuring the amount of polychlorinated biphenyl in the test sample, i.e., carrying out a quantitative analysis. This can occur using a labeled competitor and by measuring the amount of antibody bound to said labeled competitor. In certain embodiments, however, the detecting step involves measuring the amount of unbound competitor in the test sample.

“Test sample,” as used herein, refers to a sample to be tested for the presence of toxic PCB congener. The test sample may be in liquid or solid form, and will include soil samples, oil samples, and other samples suspected of containing one or more toxic PCB congeners.

A “hapten” is a molecule that when combined with a carrier protein induces an immune response in an animal. For purposes of this invention, the hapten is designed to raise antibodies that recognize and bind to one or more toxic PCB congeners. The competitor reagents of the present invention are designed to improve the sensitivity of the assay format selected. The competitor will bind to the antibodies raised from hapten-protein complexes of the invention in competition with PCBs in a test sample.

The present invention provides novel competitors for use in detecting or quantifying toxic PCB congeners described by the following general formulas:

wherein

(a) A is selected from the group consisting of —NH—, —S—, —O—, —CH₂—, —C(O)—, —CH═CH—, —NH—C(O)—, —C(O)—NH—, —NH—C(O)—NH—, —NH—C(S)—NH—, —N(CH₃)—, —N(CH₃)₂—, and —OC(S)NH—; preferably A is selected from the group consisting of —NH—, —O—, —C(O)—, —CH═CH—, —NH—C(O)—, —NH—C(O)—NH—, —NH—C(S)—NH—, and —OC(S)NH—; more preferably A is —C(O)—, or —C═C—;

(b) B is a single bond or an organic or inorganic linking group capable of forming covalent bonds with A and C simultaneously;

(c) C is selected from the group consisting of —CO₂H, —NH₂, —CHO, and —OH;

(d) Y and Y′ are selected from the group consisting of —H and —Cl, with the proviso that no more than one of Y or Y′ is —Cl, preferably both Y and Y′ are —H;

(e) n=0-5;

(f) p=0-3; and

(g) q=0-4.

Competitors of Formula I are preferred as they are expected to provide, in general, greater sensitivity than the biphenyl based competitors of Formula II. Competitors of Formula I are expected to bind anti-hapten antibodies with a lower affinity than the affinity with which a toxic PCB congener will bind to the anti-hapten antibodies.

Haptens from which antibodies for use in the present immunoassay for detecting or quantifying toxic PCB congeners can be raised include those described by Formula III:

wherein

(a) L is selected from the group consisting of —NH—, —S—, —O—, —CH₂—, —C(O)—, —CH═CH—, —NH—C(O)—, —C(O)—NH—, —NH—C(O)—NH—, —NH—C(S)—NH—, —N(CH₃)—, —N(CH₃)₂—, and —OC(S)NH—; preferably L is —C(O)— or —CH═CH—;

(b) M is a single bond or an organic or inorganic linking group capable of forming covalent bonds with A and C simultaneously;

(c) N is selected from the group consisting of —CO₂H, —NH₂, —CHO, and —OH;

(d) Y and Y′ are selected from the group consisting of —H and —Cl, with the proviso that at most one of Y and Y′ is —Cl, preferably both Y and Y′ are H;

(e) p=0-3; and

(f) q=0-4.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Background—Immunoassay

Immunoassays are based on antigen-antibody interactions. Antibodies are symmetrical serum proteins, typically with two sites that enable binding to target molecules (antigens). The antibody combining site is a complex, folded surface. Binding is influenced by hydrophobic and ionic forces as well as geometric fit. The bulk of the antibody protein is not involved in the combining site and can provide a site for covalent attachment to marker molecules, such as enzymes, radionuclides, or fluorophores.

A hapten is a small molecule (e.g., less than ca. 1000 daltons) that does not induce an immune response by itself, but is recognized by some antibodies. An immune response is induced by injecting a complex of the hapten and a protein into an animal. The complex can result from a physical association of the protein and hapten, such as is obtained from the mixing of a lipophilic hapten (e.g., PCBs) with permethylated BSA, or from a covalent interaction such that a protein-hapten conjugate is formed.

A wide range of antibodies are produced in response to immunization with a hapten-protein complex. Most of the antibodies will react with the protein alone or with some complex of the protein, hapten and linkage groups. Only a few of the antibodies produced will bind with high affinity to the hapten alone, i.e., with no contribution of the protein and/or linker to the binding site. These antibodies are the ones which are most desirable for immunoassays aimed at detecting hapten-like chemicals.

Both polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies are readily prepared and suitable for the immunoassay of the present invention. The antibodies raised from injection of a hapten-protein complex into an animal can be isolated by conventional, well-known antibody isolation techniques.

Toxic Congeners of Polychlorinated Biphenyl

The analysis of a sample of PCB is complicated because PCBs are a mixture of 209 congeners which vary dramatically in their toxicity. K. C. Jones, Sci. Total Environ., 68, 141-153 (1988). The relation of toxicity to congener structure has been based on induction of cytochromes, mixed-function oxidases and other microsomal enzymes, immunotoxicity, and receptor binding data. It is thought that the most toxic PCB congeners have the highest binding affinity for the cytosolic aryl hydrocarbon receptor, which regulates aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase. S. Bandiera, et al., Chem. Biol. Interact., 39, 259-277 (1982). Toxic PCB congeners include PCBs that lack chlorine substituents ortho to the bond linking the phenyl groups. Additional toxic PCB congeners include congeners that have only one chlorine substitutent ortho to the biphenyl link. It is believed that the toxicity of the toxic PCB congeners is related to the increased ability of these congeners to assume conformations where the phenyl rings are coplaner, or more nearly coplanar than PCBs with more than one chlorine ortho to the biphenyl link.

The degree of toxicity of aryl hydrocarbons can be expressed in terms of toxicity equivalency factors (TEFs). These factors measure the toxicity of a compound relative to the toxicity of a standard reference. The reference compound is 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (2,3,7,8-TCDD), which has been characterized as the most toxic and controversial anthropogenic compound known. Anon, Environ. Sci. Technol. 29, 26A-28A (1995). This compound is given a reference TEF value of 1.0. Thus, if a given compound is observed to have toxicity which is {fraction (1/100)}th that of 2,3,7,8-TCDD, it has a TEF of 0.01. That is, if 1 ng/gram body weight 2,3,7,8-TCDD will produce a given toxicological endpoint and the compound in question requires 100 ng/gram body weight to produce the same affect, its TEF=1 ng/gram 2,3,7,8-TCDD/100 ng/gram test compound=0.01. The most common PCB congeners contain one or more ortho chlorines; e.g., 2,4′-dichloro-, 2,4,4′,trichloro-, 2,2′,5-trichloro-, 2,2′,5,5′-tetrachloro-, 2,2′,4,4′,5-pentachloro- and 2,2′,4,4′,5,5′-hexachlorobiphenyl. P. W. Albro, et al., J. Chromatogr., 169, 161-166 (1979); P. W. Albro, et al., J. Chromatogr., 205, 103-111 (1981). These common congeners typically have TEFs less than about 0.00001. The common congeners are present in much higher concentration, but they are less toxic than the congeners with no or one ortho substituent which have high TEF values. Toxic PCB congeners are characterized by a TEF value in the range from about 0.00001 to about 0.1. S. Safe, Crit. Rev. Toxicol., 21, 51-88 (1990). The most toxic PCB congeners, which are also listed by their identifying BZ number, include:

BZ No. Chlorine Substitution TEF  77 3,3′,4,4′-tetra 0.01  81 3,4,4′,5-tetra 0.01 105 2,3,3′,4,4′-penta 0.001 114 2,3,4,4′,5-penta 0.0001 118 2,3′,4,4′,5-penta 0.00 123 2,3′,4,4′,5′-penta 0.001 126 3,3′,4,4′,5-penta 0.1 156 2,3,3′,4,4′,5-hexa 0.001 157 2,3,3′,4,4′,5-hexa 0.00002 167 2,3′,4,4′,5,5-hexa 0.001 169 3,3′,4,4′,5,5-hexa 0.05 189 2,3,3′,4,4′,5,5′-hepta 0.001

The toxicity equivalency quotient (TEQ) is derived form the TEF of each identified contaminant and its observed concentration. For example, 1 ng/gram body weight of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin has a TEQ of 1 ng/gram (1 ng/gram times 1.0 TEF) while a 100 ng/gram body weight concentration of 3,3′,4,4′-tetrachlorobiphenyl also has a TEQ of 1 ng/gram (100 ng/gram times 0.01 TEF). The total aryl hydrocarbon toxicity which results from the body burden of the aryl hydrocarbon contaminants has been estimated for a number of species using the TEQ. In several studies, the PCB toxic congeners have accounted for a substantial portion of the total TEQ.

Assay

Competitors and haptens of the present invention are useful in a number of assay formats. Once suitable antibody (antisera) has been raised using a hapten of the present invention (Formula III), the antibodies and competitors of the invention (Formulas I and II) are incorporated into a suitable immunoassay. Enzyme ImmunoAssay (EIA) is a preferred format because of significant advantages in cost, personnel training and equipment requirements over radioimmunoassay and fluoroimmunoassay.

Other than enzymes, radioisotopes, luminescent molecules, fluorescent molecules, chemiluminescent molecules, and other detectable moieties may be a part of an assay designed to take advantage of improved sensitivity available from use of haptens and competitors set forth herein. These detectable moieties can be bound to the antibodies or competitors of the present invention. Of the preferred enzymatic methods for determination, one particularly preferred method involves an ELISA technique.

One assay procedure that may be used for the analysis of samples containing PCBs is one in which antibodies are immobilized on the walls of a plastic support (test tubes or plastic wells). This immobilization can be either direct or through an immobilized anti-mouse antibody, anti-rabbit antibody, or the like. In such an assay procedure the standards and test samples are mixed with a limited amount of competitor conjugated directly to an enzyme, such as alkaline phosphatase or horseradish peroxidase. The free compound (PCB analyte) in the sample competes with the enzyme conjugate for binding to the immobilized antibody. Enzyme substrate and chromogen are added for color development by the bound enzyme. The intensity of the color is inversely proportional of the amount of PCB content. See, e.g., A. Voller, “Heterogenous Enzyme Immunoassays and their Applications”, Enzyme Immunoassay, CRC Press, p. 183 (1980).

The first step in one preferred embodiment of the assay process is to immobilize a competitor on a solid support, such as a plastic surface (e.g., inside a plastic test tube or in the well of a microtiter plate). After the competitor is immobilized, the support is washed to remove the unbound material. Simple adsorption is generally sufficient for the immobilization, particularly if the competitor is in the form of a competitor-protein complex.

In the second step, a sample containing the analyte (PCBs) is added in solution either from a standard or as part of the sample being analyzed. The antibody is then added. When no PCB is in the solution, a maximum amount of antibody binds to the competitors on the plate. A high concentration of PCBs in solution blocks binding of the antibody to the competitors bound to the plate. At intermediate PCB concentrations, some antibody will be bound to the competitors and some will remain in solution. At the end of the incubation period, the solution phase is washed away, leaving behind that fraction of the antibody that is bound to the immobilized competitor. The competitors are preferably a competitor of Formula I or II above, more preferably Formula I, and most preferably one of the exemplified competitors below.

The final step in the preferred assay is the detection of the antibody which remains bound to the competitors. This is done by detecting enzymatic activity associated with the antibody. The enzyme can either have been directly conjugated to the hapten specific antibody used in the second step or introduced via an enzyme conjugated second antibody that binds to the anti-hapten antibody. A wide variety of enzymes and substrates are suitable. Enzymatic activity is most often demonstrated by the release of a colored product that can be detected spectrophotometrically.

It is understood by those of skill in the art that the assay procedure described above can include other mainpulations or technical procedures between the listed steps. In addition to these EIA protocols, reagents of the present invention will be usable in the development of a variety of assay formats. Examples include fluorescence, chemiluminescence, and luminescence methods, dipsticks and other rapid test devices for semi-quantitative use, fluorescence sensors, electrodes, and other sensor devices. Also, the reagents of the present invention, i.e., competitors and haptens, may be used in the method described in EP 0455 058 AZ and U.S. Pat. No. 5,145,790, which are incorporated herein by reference.

Haptens

Haptens are used to produce antibodies for use in the assays of the present invention. A suitable hapten is conjugated with a carrier protein and injected into an animal (e.g. mice, rabbits, goats, horses) to induce an immune response. Suitable carrier proteins include keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH); bovine serum albumin (BSA), egg ovalbumin, thyroglobulin, bovine gamma globulin, and others known in the art (e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,456,691, incorporated herein by reference). The haptens of the present invention may be completed with, or conjugated to, a carrier protein using a variety of methods known to those skilled in the art.

Suitable haptens include those having the general Formula III, as discussed above. For general PCB immunoassays, haptens that can be used in the production of antibodies for methods of the invention include those haptens of Formula III wherein at least one of Y or Y′ is—Cl and L is —S—, or —CH₂—. Examples of suitable haptens for general PCB immunoassays include Exemplary Haptens I-VI (n=1-30):

For methods of detecting toxic PCB congeners, suitable haptens include those having the general Formula III. Preferred haptens for the production of antibodies for use in the methods for detecting toxic PCB congeners of the invention include those haptens of Formula III where L is —S—, —CH₂—, —CH═CH— or —C(O)—. In other situations, it is more preferred that L is —C(O)— or —C═C—. Examples of suitable haptens include Exemplary Haptens VII-XIV with n=1 to about 30:

The haptens of the present invention can also be immobilized on a solid support to form a hapten-solid support complex. Suitable solid supports include inorganic supports such as glass, quartz, ceramics, zeolites, etc., polymeric materials derived from monomeric units such as styrene, divinylbenzene, ethylene, butadiene, etc., carbohydrate supports such as agarose, dextrose, cellulose, starch, etc., and insoluble protein materials such as gelatin, collagen, etc.

In the context of the present invention with respect to M (Formula III) and B (Formulas I and II), the term “organic group” means an aromatic, heterocyclic, saturated or unsaturated linear, branched, or cyclic hydrocarbon group. This term is used to encompass alkyl or vinyl groups, for example. The term “heterocyclic” means a mono- or polynuclear saturated or unsaturated cyclic radical containing carbons and one or more heteroatoms such as nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, silicon, or sulfur or combination thereof in the ring or rings. The term “aromatic” group means a mono- or polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon group, including arylalkyl groups. The term “arylalkyl” group means a linear, branched, or cyclic alkyl hydrocarbon moiety having a mono- or polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon or heterocyclic substitutuent. For Formulas I-III, substituent B (Formulas I and II) and M (Formula III) can represent an alkyl group that is optionally interrupted by 1-10 O, S, or NH groups. That is, the alkyl group can be a straight or branched saturated carbon chain with 0-10 O, S, or NH groups within the chain. Preferably, if one or more of these groups are present they are not in sequence with each other. That is, each is bonded to two carbon atoms within the chain.

Competitors

The sensitivity of immunoassays of the present invention are enhanced with the use of a suitable competitor reagent to compete with the analyte (PCBs) in the test sample for binding with the antibody. That is, sensitivity of the immunoassay may be enhanced by selecting a competitor that does not substantially duplicate the hapten. The competitor must only be sufficiently recognized by the antibody to perform its function of competitively (versus the analyte) binding to the antibody. For example, the use of a phenyl competitor (Formula I) is preferred over use of a biphenyl competitor (Formula II). Also, the use of an alkyl linker (A—B—C) on the competitor versus a polar linker on the hapten, produces improved sensitivity. To enhance sensitivity, the competitor is selected such that it has a lower affinity with the antibody than the antibody has with the PCBs in a test sample. The relative affinity of a particular antibody or antisera for the analyte versus a particular competitor can be measured using, for example, equilibrium dialysis. The most common format for this evaluation would utilize a solution of the antibody to which was added either ¹⁴C-labeled Aroclor® 1248 or a particular ¹⁴C-labeled congener (e.g., 2,2′,4,4′5,5′-hexachlorobiphenyl) either alone or in competition with a competitor.

Competitors of the present invention will have one of the general structures of Formulas I or II above. Competitors for general PCB immunoassays include Exemplary Competitors 1-11:

For methods of detecting or quantifying toxic PCB congeners certain competitors are advantageous. In certain situations the competitors in which A is selected from the group consisting of —NH—, —O—, —C(O)—, —CH═CH—, —NH—C(O)—, —NH—C(O)—NH—, —NH—C(S)—NH—, and —OC(S)NH—. In other situations it is preferable that A is —C(O)—, or —C═C—. Of the competitors of Formula II, the competitors based on the alkyl link (A—B—C in Competitors 24 and 26 below) when used with antibodies raised from haptens using a polar chlorine mimic linker (e.g. —NH—, —S—, —O—, etc.) may have the best sensitivity of the competitors of Formula II. By polar chlorine mimic linker it is meant that the group which attaches the linker to the biphenyl nudes has properties of size, electronegativity, etc. which resemble chlorine. For example, the ether (—O—) and thioether (—S—) groups are expected to be good chlorine mimic moieties while the alkyl (—CH₂—) group is expected to be a poorer chlorine mimic. Herein, a “linker” is represented by A—B—C in Formulas I and II and by L—M—N in Formula III. Preferred competitors for methods of detecting or quantifying toxic PCB congeners include Exemplary Competitors 12-26 where n=1 to about 30:

The competitors of the present invention can be bound to proteins. Suitable proteins for binding to the competitors include keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH); bovine serum albumin (BSA), egg ovalbumin, thyroglobulin, bovine gamma globulin, and others known in the art (e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,456,691, incorporated herein by reference). The competitors of the present invention may be complexed with, or conjugated to, a carrier protein using a variety of methods known to those skilled in the art.

The competitor is preferably used in a labeled or immobilized format. That is, preferably the competitor is labeled with a detectable moiety, such as an enzyme, radioisotope, chemiluminescent molecule, fluorescent molecule, luminescent molecule, or other detectable moiety known in the art. The competitor can also be immobilized on a solid support to form a competitor-solid support complex. Suitable solid supports include inorganic supports such as glass, quartz, ceramics, zeolites, etc, polymeric materials derived from monomeric units such as styrene divinylbenzene, ethylene, butadiene, etc., carbohydrate supports such as agarose, dextrose, cellulose, starch, etc., and insoluble protein materials such as gelatin, collagen, etc.

The invention has been described with reference to various specific and preferred embodiments and will be further described by reference to the following detailed examples. It is understood, however, that there are many extensions, variations, and modifications on the basic theme of the present invention beyond that shown in the examples and detailed description, which are within the spirit and scope of the present invention.

EXAMPLES

General Experimental Procedures

NMR spectra were recorded with Nicolet NT-300 or IBM 200 MHz instruments. Mass spectral data were obtained with an AEI-ms 30 spectrometer. Gas chromatography (GC) was performed on a HP 5890, equipped with an FID detector under the following conditions: hold 2 minutes, 100-275° C., 15° C./min. A 30 m×0.32 mm I.D. Supelco SPB-5, 0.25 μm film thickness (5% diphenyl:94% dimethyl:1 vinyl polysiloxane phases) column was used for all GC analyses. Flash as well as medium pressure liquid chromatography (MPLC) were carried out with hand packed 40 μm Baker silica gel columns. Thin layer chromatography (TLC) was done on 250 μm silica gel GF Uniplates.

For methods of detecting or quantifying toxic PCB congeners, all reagents were purchased from Aldrich Chemical Co. or Sigma Chemical Co. unless otherwise indicated. Also for these methods gas chromatography (GC) was performed on a Hewlett-Packard 5890 system equipped with an FID detector and a 30 m×0.32 mm ID Supelco SPB-5 (0.25 um film of 5% diphenyl; 94% dimethyl:1% vinyl polysiloxane) column. The following GC conditions were used: Initial temperature 100° C.; temperature hold 2 minutes then 15° C./min to 275° C.

Competitor Synthesis

The competitors are readily available from commercial sources (for example, 3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)propionic acid (Exemplified Competitor 9) (Aldrich) or by the addition of a linker to the appropriate polychlorotoluene (for example, Exemplified Competitor 11).

For methods of detecting or quanityfing toxic PCB congeners the competitors (Exemplified Competitors 12-26) are readily available from commercial sources or by the additon of a linker moiety to an appropriately functionalized polychlorophenyl synthon.

Hapten Synthesis

The haptens (Exemplified Haptens I-XIV) can be prepared using known synthetic strategies.

Enzyme Immunoassay

The direct and indirect enzyme immunoassays were readily performed using commercial materials and known formats in combination with the antibody and competitor conjugate materials of the invention.

EXAMPLES FOR GENERAL PCB IMMUNOASSAYS Example 1 Method A: Titer Determination

A solution of the coating antigen, consisting of 100 ng of a BSA conjugate of Hapten I or Exemplified Competitor 11 above, in 50 μl of PBS (phosphate buffered saline, pH 7.4, 10 mM phosphate, 150 mM NaCl), was dispensed into each well of a 96-well microtiter plate (Dynatech Immulon-2 commercially available from Dynatech, Inc., Chantilly, Va.) and incubated at 28° C. (+/−0.5° C.) for 2 hours. The coating antigen solution was then removed from the wells and the plate was washed three times with PBS. All wash steps utilized a Cambridge Technology, Inc. Platewasher 260, commercially available from Cambridge Technology, Inc. Cambridge, Mass. The remaining active sites in the wells were blocked with a 150 μl solution of 1% BSA in PBS with 0.02% sodium azide for 2 hours at 28° C. After removal of the blocking solution the plate was washed three times with PBS. Serum stored at −20° C. was freshly thawed and diluted 100-250,000 fold with the 1% BSA in PBS/DT blocking buffer (PBS buffer containing 10% by volume dimethylformamide and 0.5% Triton X-100). This solution (50 μl/well) was then dispensed into replicate wells (3-6) on the plate, which was covered and incubated for 1 hour at room temperature (RT). After removal of the incubation solution the plate was washed three times with PBS. The labeled antibody, anti-rabbit IgG (whole molecule)—alkaline phosphatase conjugate, (Sigma No. A-8025 commercially available from Sigma Chemical Company, St. Louis, Mo.), diluted 1/500 with BSA/PBS, was added in a quantity of 50 μl/well and incubated for 1 hour at 28° C. After removal of the second antibody solution the plate was washed three times with PBS. The wells were then washed (one time) with 10 mM diethanolamine (pH 9.4) which contained 0.5 mM magnesium chloride. Substrate solution (50 μl; 10 mg p-nitrophenylphosphate in 10.0 ml of the diethanolamine/magnesium chloride) was added to each well and incubated for 30 minutes at 28° C. Sodium hydroxide (50 μl of a 0.05 N solution) was added to each of the wells to stop the reaction. The final Absorbance in each well was determined at 405 nm using a Cambridge Technologies, Inc. Model 750 Microplate Reader commercially available from Cambridge Technologies, Inc., Cambridge, Mass. The titer of the sera was determined by a Log Sera Dilution versus Absorbance plot and the EC50 value.

Example 2 Method B: Inhibition ELISA

Inhibition ELISA followed the basic assay procedure described above with the following addition: The serum sample was diluted to its EC80 value (400-1000 fold) with the 1% BSA in PBS blocking buffer to which had been added 10% dimethylformamide, volume/volume (v/v), and 0.5% Triton® X-100 (PBS-DT). An aqueous analyte solution (e.g., Aroclor® 1248) was prepared by solution of the analyte in dimethylformamide followed by dilution to the required concentration in PBS-DT. The analyte solution was added to the antibody solution to achieve the desired concentration of analyte (typically 1 ppb-100 ppm) and the resulting solution was incubated overnight at room temperature. This solution (50 μl/well) was then dispensed into replicate wells (3-6) on the plate and the assay completed as above. The minimum detection limit (I₁₀ ) and the I₅₀ values were determined using a Log (Analyte Concentration in parts per billion—ppb) versus Absorbance or by converting absorbance to the B/Bo ratio where B=Sample Absorbance and Bo=Absorbance of the Blank Sample. FIG. 1 includes plot 1 for Hapten I and plot 3 for Competitor 11 demonstrating the improved sensitivity using a competitor of the invention. This figure illustrates the significant improvement in PCB sensitivity as measured by both minimum detection limit (B/Bo=0.9) and assay range (B/Bo=0.5) on using a competitor versus a hapten as the competition reagent.

Example 3 Method C: Soil Extract Preparation

1×DMF Method

1.0 grams of soil is weighed out and placed into a glass vial with a teflon-lined screw cap. 1.0 ml of dimethylformamide (DMF) is added and the sample is rocked gently overnight at room temperature. The samples are centrifuged at approximately 1000×G for 10 minutes and the supernatant is removed and transferred to a clean vial.

Example 4 Synthesis of Hapten I

Hapten I was prepared as shown in FIG. 2. The methoxy biphenyls (1, 2, and 3) were the result of a Cadogen coupling of 2,4,5-trichloroaniline and 3-chloroanisole. J. I. G. Cadogen, J. Chem Soc., C (1966) 1249. Upon distillation of unreacted anisole, isomer 1 was readily separated from the crude product via flash chromatography. Isomers 2 and 3, obtained as a mixture which was difficult to resolve, were carried into BBr₃ demethylation. The resulting biphenylols 3 and 5 were easily resolved by flash chromatography. The positional substitutions of biphenyls 1 and 5 could not be unequivocally differentiated from their NMR spectra because of the expected similar coupling patterns. In order to further establish their structures, nuclear overhauser enhancement (NOE) experiments were performed on methyl ethers 1 and 3. The latter was obtained in pure form by reaction of 5 with methyl iodide. In the case of isomer 1, irradiation of the methyl ether signal produced an enhancement of the resonance for the single adjacent proton (H-3) in the difference spectrum. In contrast, irradiation of the methyl ether signal of compound 3 revealed NOE's to the two adjacent protons (H-3 and H-5), thus establishing the desired configuration present in 3 and 5. Biphenylol 5 was alkylated with ethyl 6-bromohexanoate to yield the ethyl ester 6. Upon isolation of the pure precursor, hapten I (7) was prepared by LiOH hydrolysis of 6 at room temperature.

2,2′,4′,5′-Tetrachloro-4-methoxybiphenyl

Isoamyl nitrite (18.8 mL, 0.140 mol) was added portionwise over the course of 1 hour to a mixture of 3-chloroanisole (100 g, 0.70 mol) and 2,4,5-trichloroaniline (13.75 g, 0.070 mol) at 120° C. under nitrogen and the reaction was allowed to stir an additional 18 hours, and then distilled (0.2 mmHg, 160-185° C.) to yield 14.07 g (62%). A 300 mg portion of the distillate was further purified via flash chromatography (silica gel, hexane eluent). Fraction 1 (32.2 mg, Rf=0.33; GC RT=14.44 minutes) was identified as 2′,4,4′,5′-tetrachloro-2-methoxybiphenyl. Fraction 2 (75.2 mg, Rf=0.22) contained a mixture of two products in a 40:60 ratio. Through subsequent demethylation and separation, these were determined to be the 2,2′,4′,5′-tetrachloro-6-methoxy and 2,2′,4′,5′-tetrachloro-4-methoxybiphenyl derivatives (GC retention time=14.01, 14.69 minutes respectively).

2′,4,4′,5′-tetrachloro-2-methoxybiphenyl (fraction 1): ¹H-NMR (300 MHz CDCl₃) δ=7.56 (s, H3′) 7.35 (s, H6′), 7.08 (d, J=8.1 Hz, H6), 7.01 (dd, J=1.6, 8.0 Hz, H5), 6.96 (d, J=1.4 Hz, H3), 3.78 (s, OCH₃).

MS (EI), m/e (relative intensity) 320 (M, 38), 270 (22), 250 (8), 28 (100); exact mass calculated for C₁₃H₈OCl₄, [M]⁺ 319.9327, found 319.9343.

2,2′,4′,5′-Tetrachloro-4-hydroxybiphenyl

1.0 M BBr₃ (3.56 mL, 3.56 mmol) in CH₂Cl₂ was added to the mixture of 2,2′,4′,5′, tetrachloro-4-methoxy and 2,2′,4′,5′-tetrachloro-6-methoxybiphenyl derivatives (731 mg, 2.27 mmol) in 15 mL CH₂Cl₂ and the reaction was allowed to stir for 36 hours, then quenched by the addition of 5 mL saturated KH₂PO₄. The reaction mixture was diluted with diethyl ether and washed with several portions of KH₂PO₄, water and brine. The organic layer was dried with anhydrous Na₂SO₄, filtered and concentrated to a dark oil The crude product was purified via flash chromatography (silica gel, 60/40, hexane/benzene eluent). Fraction 1 (327 mg, 47%; Rf=0.31; GC retention time=14.20 minutes) was identified as 2,2′,4′,5′-tetrachloro-6-hydroxybiphenyl. Fraction 2 (229 mg, 33%; Rf-0.25; GC RT=15.55 minutes) was found to be 2,2′,4′,5′-tetrachloro-4-hydroxybiphenyl.

2,2′,4′,5′-tetrachloro-6-hydroxybiphenyl (fraction 1): ¹H-NMR (300 MHz, CDCl₃) δ=7.67 (s, H3′), 7.41 (s, H6′), 7.25 (dd, J=6.5, 8.2 Hz, H4), 7.09 (dd, J=0.96, 7.9 Hz, H3), 6.88 (dd, J=0.94, 8.3 Hz, H5), 4.80 (s, OH).

MS (EI), m/e (relative intensity) 306 (M, 78), 270 (18), 236 (100), 207 (15), 173 (16), 103 (18), 28 (100); exact mass calculated for C₁₂H₆OCl₄, [M]⁺ 305.9171, found 305.9182.

2,2′,4′,5′-tetrachloro-4-hydroxybiphenyl (fraction 2): ¹H-NMR (300 MHz, CDCl₃) δ=7.58 (s, H3′), 7.37 (s, H6′), 7.10 (d, J=8.4 Hz, H6), 6.99 (d, J=2.5 Hz, H3), 6.81 (dd, J=2.5, 8.3 Hz, H5), 5.19 (s, OH).

MS (EI), m/e (relative intensity) 308 (100), 306 (80), 236 (45), 207 (15), 173 (18), 43 (22), 28 (72); exact mass calculated for C₁₂H₆OCl₄, [M]⁺ 307.9908, found 307.9168.

Ethyl 6-(2,2′,4′,5′-tetrachlorobiphenyloxy)-4-yl hexanoate

Ethyl 6-bromohexanoate was added to a solution of 2,2′,4′,5′-tetrachloro-4-hydroxybiphenyl (81.7 mg, 0.266 mmol) in N,N-dimethylformamide. Anhydrous K₂CO₃ (140 mg, 1.01 mmol) and NaI (5 mg, 0.003 mmol) were added to the vigorously stirred mixture. The reaction mixture was allowed to stir at 130° C. under nitrogen for 5 hours. The reaction was cooled to room temperature, then diluted with 50 mL diethyl ether. The resulting organic solution was washed with five portions of water and once with brine. The organic layer was dried with anhydrous Na₂SO₄, filtered and concentrated to 125 mg (97%) of a light yellow oil.

¹H-NMR (300 MHz, CDCl₃) δ=7.57 (s, H3′), 7.36 (s, H6′), 7.11 (d, J=8.5 Hz, H6), 7.00 (d, J=2.5 Hz, H3), 6.85 (dd, J=2.5, 8.5 Hz, H5), 4.14 (q, J=7.2 Hz, COOCH ₂CH₃), 3.99 (t, J=6.4 Hz, Ar—O—CH ₂—), 2.34 (t, J=7.3 Hz, —CH₂CH₂COOCH ₂CH₃), 1.83 (quintet, J=7.1 Hz, Ar—O—CH₂CH ₂CH₂—), 1.72 (quintet, J=6.7 Hz, —CH₂CH ₂CH₂COOCH₂CH₃), 1.54-1.49 (m, Ar—O—CH₂CH₂CH ₂—), 1.26 (t, J=7.1 Hz, —COOCH₂CH ₃).

MS (EI), m/e (relative intensity) 448 (M, 7), 306 (23), 236 (10), 143 (100), 97 (67), 69 (75), 55 (18), 28 (45); exact mass calculated for C₂₀H₂₀O₃Cl₄, [M]⁺ 448.0165, found 448.0134.

6-(2,2′,4′,5′-Tetrachlorobiphenyloxy)-4-yl hexanoic acid

500 μL methanol was added to a solution of ethyl 6-(2,2′,4′,5′-tetrachlorobiphenyloxy)-4-yl hexanoate (120 mg, 0.248 mmol) in 500 μL tetrahydrofuran. The resulting solution was added to 1 mL 30% KOH and heated in a sealed tube, with stirring for 2 hours. The reaction was cooled to room temperature and allowed to stir for an additional 18 hours. The reaction mixture was diluted with 1 M HCl and extracted with several portions of diethyl ether. The combined organic layers were dried with anhydrous Na₂SO₄, filtered and concentrated to a heavy oil. The crude product was purified via flash chromatography (silica gel, 9:1, hexane/ethyl acetate, containing 1 acetic acid) to yield 93 mg (88%, Rf=0.30) of a water white oil.

¹H-NMR (300 MHz, CDCl₃) δ=7.57 (s, H3′), 7.36 (s, H6′), 7.11 (d, J=8.6 Hz, H6), 7.01 (d, J=2.2 Hz, H3), 6.85 (dd, J=2.5, 8.6 Hz, H5), 3.99 t, J=6.2 Hz, Ar—O—CH ₂CH₂CH₂—), 2.41 (t, J=7.3 Hz, —CH₂CH₂CH ₂COOH), 1.86-1.79 (m, Ar—O—CH₂CH ₂CH₂—), 1.76-1.69 (m, —CH₂CH ₂CH₂COOH), 1.60-1.52 (m, Ar—O—CH₂CH₂CH ₂—).

MS (EI), (relative intensity) 422 (20), 420 (15), 308 (100), 306 (70), 236 (20), 97 (25), 55 (15), 28 (15); exact mass calculated for C₁₈H₁₆O₃Cl₄, [M]⁺ 419.9872, found 419.9861.

Example 5 Hapten I Conjugation

Hapten I was conjugated to the carrier proteins keyhole limpet hemocyanin and bovine serum albumin through a carbodiimide mediated carboxyl activation procedure. Control reactions which contained hapten and protein without the activating reagent were used to evaluate the efficiency of the aqueous dioxin dialysis procedure for removal of non-covalent (vida infra) hapten from the conjugate solution. Hapten loads could not be accurately assessed using a differential UV/Vis procedure. Consequently, a procedure for the release of the hapten from the conjugate through amide hydrolysis was developed. The released hapten was subsequently quantified by GC. The following conjugates were prepared:

Sample GC Load Quantity KLH Hapten I 49 19 mg Conjugation KLH Hapten I 0.8 Control BSA Hapten I 12 10 mg Conjugation BSA Hapten I 1.9 Control

Hapten I, calculated to be a 200 fold excess over keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH) or a 100 fold excess over bovine serum albumin (BSA) was dissolved in 0.1 mL dimethylformamide (Aldrich, gold label) and preactivated to form the N-hydroxyl succinimide (NHS) ester. The activation was carried out using a 2 fold molar excess (calculated over the hapten) of 1-ethyl-3-[3-dimethylaminopropyl]carbodiimide (EDC) and a 2 fold molar excess (also calculated over the hapten) of NHS added dry to the hapten solution.

The carrier protein was dissolved in borate buffer (0.1 M, pH 9.4) to a final concentration of 10 mg/mL. The protein solution was allowed to stir overnight at 0-5° C. to ensure that all of the protein was dissolved. Dimethylformamide (Aldrich, gold label) was added to a concentration of 5% (v/v). The preactivated hapten solution was added to the protein solution, 10 μL at a time, every 15 minutes, using a 10 μL Hamilton syringe. The BSA conjugation solution routinely became turbid with each addition and remained slightly turbid throughout the whole process. The KLH conjugation solution routinely became turbid with each addition, but became clear upon stirring. The conjugation mixtures were allowed to stir for an additional hour at room temperature and then overnight at 0-5° C.

Samples were transferred to wetted cellulose dialysis tubing (mw cutoff 12,000-14,000) and dialyzed vs. 1.0 L volumes of 25% dioxane (EM Science, glass distilled) in phosphate buffered saline (PBS, pH 7.4) for two days, changing to fresh dialysate buffer after the first day. Controls containing no EDC showed that this method was successful in removing any nonspecifically bound hapten from the carrier protein.

Samples were dialyzed vs. 1.0 L volumes of PBS for two days to remove any traces of dioxane, changing to fresh PBS after the first day. After dialysis, samples were centrifuged at 1000×G for 10 minutes at 0-5° C. to remove any precipitate.

Load Determination

The moles of carrier protein were determined by the Lowry method with the use of an appropriate protein standard curve. The moles of hapten were determined by hydrolysis of the conjugates to liberate the hapten for quantitation by GC.

Conjugates were hydrolyzed in 6 N HCl in an evacuated, sealed ampule for 18 hours at 110° C. After cooling to room temperature, the hapten was extracted from the acid solution with ethyl acetate (3×500 μL). The combined extracts were dried by passage through a small column of anhydrous Na₂SO₄ and then concentrated under reduced pressure. The extracted hapten was converted to the methyl ester using CH₂N₂ and then concentrated to a dry residue. The residue was dissolved in 100 μL of ethyl acetate and analyzed by GC using the following conditions:

Retention time: 19.1 minutes

Column: 30 m×0.32 mm I.D. Supelco SPB-5, 0.25 μm film thickness (5% diphenyl:94% dimethyl:1% vinyl polysiloxane phases).

Column temp.: 275° C.

Instrument: HP 5890, FID detector

The hapten was quantified by comparing the peak areas to the appropriate hapten standard curve. The conjugate load was determined by dividing the moles of hapten present by the moles of carrier protein.

Example 6 Hapten II Synthesis

Hapten II was prepared as shown in FIG. 3. The requisite 2,5-dichloroanisole was prepared by alkylation of the corresponding phenol with methyl iodide. Methyl ethers 8, 9, and 10 were obtained from a two-phase coupling reaction where the trichloroaniline was diazotized under aqueous conditions and added to a CCl₄ solution of dichloroanisole, then neutralized with saturated sodium acetate. Goldstien, J. A., Chem.—Biol. Interactions, 17, 69-87 (1977). Isomer 8 was readily separated via flash chromatography while isomers 9 and 10 were only separable upon BBr₃ demethylation. The structures of biphenylols 11 and 12 were unambiguously assigned due to their unique proton NMR spectra. Alkylation and subsequent hydrolysis followed that of the Hapten I scheme.

2,5-Dichloroanisole

Anhydrous K₂CO₃ (21.9 g, 0.159 mol) and methyl iodide (10.8 mL, 0.178 mol) were added to a solution of 2,5-dichlorophenol (23.5 g, 0.144 mol) in 215 mL acetone. The reaction was allowed to stir at room temperature for 20 hours, then filtered through a celite pad. The filtrate was concentrated to a residue which was taken up in diethylether. The ether solution was washed with 10% NaHSO₃, water, several portions of 1 M NaOH, and brine, then dried with anhydrous Na₂SO₄. Upon filtration and concentration, the residue was distilled (8 mm Hg, 110° C.) to yield 23.7 g (93.5%) of a light yellow oil.

¹H-NMR (200 MHz, CDCl₃) δ=7.27 (d, J=9.2 Hz, H3), 6.91 (br s, H6), 6.78 (dd, J=2.2, 8.0 Hz, H4), 3.89 (s, OCH ₃).

2,5,2′,4′,5′-Pentachloro-4-methoxybiphenyl

To a suspension of 2,4,5-trichloroaniline (1.96 g, 10 mmol) in 30 mL 35% H₂SO₄ in an ice/salt bath (below 0° C.) was added a solution of sodium nitrite (0.828 mg, 12 mmol) in 50 ml cold distilled water. The yellow mixture was allowed to stir below 0° C. for 45 minutes at which time it was added to a vigorously stirred solution of 2,5-dichloroanisole (1.76 g, 10 mmol) in 100 mL CCl₄ below 0° C. Saturated sodium acetate solution was added until a pH≧7 was obtained. The resulting mixture was allowed to warm to room temperature, then stirred 18 h. The reaction was extracted with several portions of CH₂Cl₂ and the combined organic layers were dried with anhydrous Na₂SO₄, filtered, then concentrated to a heavy oil. The oil was distilled (150-200° C., 0.2 mm Hg) through a Kugelrhor apparatus to yield 0.8 g of a dark yellow oil. The distillate was further purified via flash chromatography (silica gel, hexane eluent). Fraction 1 (40 mg; Rf=0.38; GC retention time=16.32 minutes) was identified as 2,2′,4′,5,5′-pentachloro-6-methoxybiphenyl. Fraction 2 (262 mg, 7.4% yield; Rf=0.33) was found to contain 2,5,2′,4′,5′-pentachloro-3-methoxy and 2,5,2′,4′,5′-pentachloro-4-methoxybiphenyl in a 17:83 ratio as determined by GC (RT=17.58, 17.75 minutes respectively) and NMR analyses.

2,2′,4′,5,5′-Pentachloro-6-methoxybiphenyl (fraction 1): H-NMR (300 MHz, CDCl₃) δ=7.54 (s, H3′), 7.31 (d, J=8.7 Hz, H4), 7.16 (s, H6′), 7.12 (d, J=8.8 Hz, H5), 3.52 (S, OCH₃).

2,5,2′,4′,5′-Pentachloro-3-methoxybiphenyl (fraction 2, minor component): ¹H-NMR (300 MHz, CDCl₃) δ=7.59 (s, H3′), 7.34 (s, H6′), 6.98 (d, J=2.2 Hz, H6), 6.85 (d, J=2.2 Hz, H6), 3.89 (s, OCH₃).

2,5,2′,4′,5′,-Pentachloro-4-methoxybiphenyl (fraction 2, major component): ¹H-NMR (300 MHz, CDCl₃) δ=7.59 (s, H3′), 7.36 (s, H6′), 7.26 (s, H6), 7.03 (s, H3) 3.95 (s, OCH₃).

2,5,2′,4′,5′-Pentachloro-4-hydroxybiphenyl

To a mixture of 2,5,2′,4′,5′-pentachloro-4-methoxy and 2,5,2′,4′,5′-pentachloro-3-methoxybiphenyl (1.00 g, 2.8 mmol) in 15 mL CH₂Cl₂ was added 1.0 M BBr₃ (4.21 mL, 4.21 mmol) in CH₂Cl₂. The reaction was allowed to stir for 36 hours, then quenched by the addition of 6 mL saturated KH₂PO₄. The reaction mixture was diluted with diethyl ether and washed with several portions of 10% KH₂PO₄, water and brine. The organic layer was dried with anhydrous Na₂SO₄, filtered and concentrated to a dark oil. The crude product was partially purified by flash chromatography (silica gel, 19:1, hexane:ethyl acetate eluent, 854 mg, Rf=0.30), and then medium pressure liquid chromatography was performed on a 400 mg portion (silica gel, 30/70 benzene/hexane eluent). Fraction 1 (68 mg, 17.0%; Rf=0.31; GC retention time=16.86 minutes) was identified as 2,5,2′,4′,5′-pentachloro-3-hydroxybiphenyl. Fraction 2 (50 mg 12.5%; Rf=0.28; GC RT=17.84 min) was found to be 2,5,2′,4′,5′-pentachloro-4-hydroxybiphenyl.

2,5,2′,4′,5′-pentachloro-3-hydroxybiphenyl (fraction 1): ¹H-NMR (300 MHz, CDCl₃) δ=7.60 (s, H3′), 7.36 (s, H6′), 7.12 (d, J=2.4 Hz, H6), 6.83 (d J=2.4 Hz H4), 5.77 (s, OH).

MS (EI), m/e (relative intensity) 342 (100), 340 (M, 63), 270 (11), 182 (13), 135 (15), 28 (64); exact mass calculated for C₁₂H₅OCl₅ [M]⁺ 339.8799, found 339.8779.

2,5,2′,4′,5′-pentachloro-4-hydroxybiphenyl (fraction 2): ¹H-NMR (300 MHz, CDCl₃) δ=7.59 (s, H3′), 7.35 (s, H6′), 7.22 (s, H6), 7.17 (s, H3), 5.71 (br s, OH).

MS (EI), m/e (relative intensity) 342 (100), 340 (41), 272 (32), 243 (20), 171 (12), 119 (36); exact mass calculated for C₁₂H₅OCL₅ [M]⁺ 339.8783, found 339.8772.

Ethyl 6-(2,2′,4′,5,5′-pentachlorobiphenyloxy)-4-yl hexanoate

To a solution of 2,5,2′,4′,5′-pentachloro-4-hydroxybiphenyl (157 mg, 0.459 mmol) in 0.50 ml DMF was added ethyl 6-bromohexanoate (82 μL, 0.459 mmol). To the vigorously stirred reaction mixture was added anhydrous K₂CO₃ (253 mg, 1.84 mmol) and NaI (5 mg, 0.003 mmol). The reaction mixture was allowed to stir at 130° C. under nitrogen for 5 hours. The reaction was cooled to room temperature, then diluted with diethyl ether. The resulting organic solution was washed with five portions of water, and once with brine. The organic layer was dried with anhydrous Na₂SO₄, filtered and concentrated to give 216 mg (98%) of a light yellow oil.

¹H-NMR (300 MHz CDCl₃) δ7.58 (s, H3′), 7.35 (s, H6′), 7.24 (s, H6), 7.00 (s, H3), 4.13 (q, J=7.1 Hz, COOCH ₂CH₃), 4.06 (t, J=6.3 Hz, Ar—O—CH ₂CH₂—), 2.36 (t, J=7.2 Hz, —CH₂CH ₂COOCH₂CH₃), 1.90 (quintet, J=7.1 Hz, Ar—O—CH₂CH ₂CH₂—), 1.74 (quintet, J=7.8 Hz CH₂CH ₂CH₂COOCH₂CH₃), 1.57 (apparent singlet, Ar—O—CH₂CH₂CH ₂—), 1.26 (t, J=7.2 Hz, COOCH ₂CH₃).

MS (EI) m/e (relative intensity) 342 (28), 340 (M, 18) 143 (100), 97 (78), 69 (54); 55 (23), 28 (58); exact mass calculated for C₂₀H₁₉O₃Cl₅ [M]⁺ 481.9775, found 481.9768.

6-(2,2′,4′,5,5′-Pentachlorobiphenyloxy)-4-yl hexanoic acid

To a solution of ethyl 6-(2,2′,4′,5,5′-pentachlorobiphenyloxy)-4-yl hexanoate (216 mg, 0.446 mmol) in 2 mL each, methanol and tetrahydrofuran, was added 2 mL of 2 N LiOH. The reaction was allowed to stir at room temperature for 18 hours. The organic solvents were removed under reduced pressure and the reaction mixture was acidified with 1 N HCl. The milky suspension was extracted with several portions of CH₂Cl₂, and the combined organic extracts were dried with anhydrous Na₂SO₄ and then concentrated to a light yellow oil. The crude product was purified by flash chromatography (silica gel, 19:1, hexane:ethyl acetate with 1% acetic acid eluent) to yield 178 mg (87%) of a water white oil.

¹H-NMR (300 MHz, CDCl₃) δ=7.60 (s, H3′), 7.37 (s, H6′), 7.27 (s, H6) 7.02 (s, H3), 4.08 (t, J=6.1 Hz, Ar—O—CH ₂CH₂—), 2.44 (t, J=7.3 Hz, —CH₂CH ₂COOH), 1.94-1.80 (m, Ar—O—CH₂CH ₂CH₂—), 1.79-1.66 (m, —CH₂CH ₂CH₂COOH), 1.63-1.58 (m, Ar—O—CH₂CH₂CH ₂—).

MS (EI), m/e (relative intensity) 456 (18), 454 (10), 342 (100), 340 (60), 270 (20), 115 (73), 97 (50), 69 (85), 41 (48); exact mass calculated for C₁₈H₁₅Cl₅O₃, [M⁺] 453.9464, found 453.9489.

Example 7 Hapten II Conjugation

Hapten II was conjugated to the carrier proteins Keyhole limpet hemocyanin and bovine serum albumin using the carbodiimide mediated carboxyl activation procedure described for Hapten I. Two significant problems were encountered during the preparation of the Hapten II conjugates: 1) non-specific hapten sorption to the protein, as assessed by control reactions; and 2) control hapten recoveries through the amide hydrolysis were variable (30-120%). The first problem was ultimately solved through the use of an aqueous dioxane G-25 gel chromatography conjugate purification step. The second was solved through the repetitive use of parallel controls for definition of a recovery range. The following conjugates were prepared:

Sample GC Load Quantity KLH Hapten II 58 30 mg Conjugation KLH Hapten II 0 Control BSA Hapten II 24 22 mg Conjugation BSA Hapten II 0.9 Control

Hapten II conjugation followed the procedures for Hapten I conjugation through the dialysis step. After dialysis, controls containing no EDC showed that dialysis was successful in removing any nonspecifically bound hapten from the BSA but not the KLH sample.

The KLH sample was removed from the dialysis buffer and centrifuged at 1000×G for 10 minutes at 0-5° C. to remove any precipitate. The sample was passed through a Sephadex G25 (Aldrich, 50-150 μ) column preequilibrated with 25% dioxane in PBS. 1.5 mL fractions were collected and pooled according to their absorbance at 280 nm. Controls containing no EDC showed that passing the KLH conjugate through the column successfully removed any nonspecifically bound hapten from the protein.

The KLH conjugate was transferred back into wetted cellulose dialysis tubing (mw cutoff 12,000-14,000), and both the BSA and KLH conjugates were further dialyzed for two days vs. 1.0 L volumes of PBS, changing to fresh PBS after the first day. After dialysis, samples were centrifuged at 1000×G for 10 minutes at 0-5° C. to remove any remaining precipitate.

Load Determination

Hapten II loads were determined as described for Hapten I.

Example 8 Exemplified Hastens I and II—Ether Link

Exemplified Haptens I and II can be prepared via Cadogen (J. I. G. Cadogen, J. Chem. Soc., C 1249 (1966)) coupling of 2,4,5-trichloroniline and a suitable chloroanisole followed by isomer resolution, demethylation to the biphenylol and preparation of the linker moiety (see Examples 4 and 6).

Example 9 Exemplified Hapten III—Alkyl Link

Exemplified Hapten III can be prepared via Cadogen coupling of 2,4,5-trichloroaniline and 2,3,5-trichlorotoluene followed by isomer resolution to give the methyl biphenyl derivative. Preparation of the linker moiety is based on reaction of the biphenyl methyl anion with an alkyl bromide linker (see, for example, the synthesis of Competitor 11).

Example 10 Exemplified Haptens IV and VI—Amine and Amide Link

Exemplified Haptens IV and VI can be prepared via nitration of the suitably substituted polychlorobiphenyl followed by isolation of the desired isomer and reduction to form the amino biphenyl derivative (see M. I. Luster, et al., Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol., 50, 147-155 (1979); and W. H. Newsome and J. B. Shields, Intern. J. Environ. Anal. Chem., 10, 295-304 (1981)). The amine can be alkylated in a stepwise sequence to produce the quaternary linker or acylated to prepare the amide linker.

Example 11 Exemplified Hapten V—Thioether Link

Exemplified Hapten V can be prepared in an analogous sequence to the ether haptens using a suitable chlorothioanisole precursor.

Example 12 Synthesis of Exemplified Competitor 11

The anion of 2,5-dichlorotoluene was reacted with trimethyl 4-bromoorthobutyrate to produce methyl 5-(2,5-dichlorophenyl)pentanoate after hydrolytic work-up. Competitor 11 was prepared by LiOH hydrolysis of the methyl ester.

Methyl 5-(2,5-dichlorophenyl)pentanoate

Diisopropylamine (841 μl, 6 mmol) was added to 20 mL of THF under nitrogen atmosphere and cooled to 0° C. 5.5 ml of 2.5 N n-butyllithium (55.5 mmol) was added and the reaction was stirred for 20 minutes. The reaction was then cooled to −78° C. 2,5-Dichlorotoluene (642 μL, 5 mmol) was added and stirring was continued for 2 hours at −78° C. Trimethyl 4-bromoorthobutyrate (1.14 g, 5 mmol) was added to the reaction mixture in 10 mL THF. The reaction was stirred for 5 minutes at −78° C., allowed to come to room temperature and stirred overnight. The reaction was worked-up by adding 10 mL of saturated KH₂PO₄, removal of most of the THF on a rotary evaporator followed by partitioning of the aqueous residue between ethyl acetate and 1 N HCl. The organic phase was washed twice with 1 N HCl, once with 5% NaHCO₃, dried over sodium sulfate and concentrated to a residue. Flash chromatography (silica gel; hexane/toluene (39/1)) of the residue gave 1.10 g (84%; GC retention time=15.80 minutes) of a water white oil

Elemental Analysis: C₁₂H₁₄C₁₂O₂ requires C, 55.19%; H, 5.40%; Found: C, 54.95%; H, 5.51%.

5-(2,5-Dichlorophenyl)pentanoic acid (Competitor 11)

Methyl 5-(2,5-Dichlorophenyl)pentanoate (1.10 g, 4.2 mmol) was dissolved in 20 ml THF and 7 mL methanol. 1 N LiOH (12 mL) was added dropwise and the reaction was stirred at room temperature for 2 days. The reaction was worked-up by acidification with 2 N HCl and removal of most of the THF and methanol on a rotary evaporator followed by extraction of the aqueous residue with ethyl acetate. The organic phase was washed with water and saturated brine, dried over sodium sulfate and concentrated to a residue. Flash chromatography (silica gel; hexane/toluene (19/1) with 1% acetic acid) of the residue gave 725 mg (70%) of a white solid.

Elemental analysis: C₁₁H₁₂C₁₂O₂ requires C, 53.54%; H, 4.89%; Found: C, 53.65%; H, 5.00%.

Example 13 Competitor Conjugation

The competitors were conjugated to the carrier protein, bovine serum albumin, using the carbodiimide mediated carboxyl activation procedure described for Hapten I. Competitor loads were determined using the amide hydrolysis and GC quantification procedure described for Hapten I. Examples of competitor conjugates which were prepared are:

Sample GC Load Quantity BSA-Competitor 9 26 28 mg Conjugation BSA-Competitor 9 3.5 Control BSA-Competitor 11 14 17 mg Conjugation BSA-Competitor 11 0.8 Control

Example 14 Immunization of Rabbits and Demonstration of Anti-Hapten Response

Groups of six rabbits were immunized with KLH-hapten I conjugate according to the schedule in Table 1. Sera samples (Table 1) were evaluated for anti-hapten titer by ELISA on plates coated with BSA-hapten I conjugate (Method A). Anti-hapten titers of up to 1/67,000 (average of 1/26,000 for the 40-180 day period) demonstrated that a strong anti-hapten antibody response could be produced with these haptens.

TABLE 1 Rabbit Immunization and Bleed Plan Immunization Test Bleed Description μg. imm. day day B pertussis, im −3 −3 1°-CFA+, mID 300 μg 1 2°-CFA, sc4 200 μg 14 2°-CFA, sc 100 μg 21 26 b-IFA, sc 100 μg 28 40 b-IFA, sc 100 μg 42 54 b-IFA, sc 100 μg 56 68 82 b-IFA, sc 100 μg 84 96 110 b-IFA, sc 100 μg 112 124 138 b-IFA, sc 100 μ 140 152 166 b-IFA, sc 100 μg 168 180 Abbreviations 1°initial challenge solution 2°secondary challenge solution b booster CFA complete Freund's adjuvant CFA+ fortified complete Freund's adjuvant IFA incomplete Freund's adjuvant im intramuscular mID multiple intradermal (30-50 sites) sc subcutaneous sc4 subcutaneous, 4 sites

Example 15 Demonstration of the Sera Anti-PCB Response

Sera samples were evaluated in an inhibition ELISA format with a BSA-hapten I coating conjugate (Method B). FIG. 1 (Plot 1) demonstrates the anti-PCB response of the sera with a minimum detection limit (I₁₀) of approximately 4 ppm and an I₅₀ of approximately 50 ppm for the PCB congener mixture Aroclor® 1248.

Example 16 Demonstration of an Inhibition ELISA Based on a Competitor Conjugate

Inhibition ELISA using a BSA-Competitor 11 coating conjugate (Methods A,B; BSA-Competitor 11 conjugate substituted for hapten conjugate) demonstrated significantly improved PCB sensitivity as is illustrated in FIG. 1 (Plot 3). This assay format gave a minimum detection limit (I₁₀) of approximately 0.2 ppm and an I₅₀ of approximately 3 ppm. In addition, the assay has been demonstrated to be highly responsive to the major Aroclor® mixtures of PCB congeners (Table 2) and to be nonresponsive to related non-PCB environmental contaminants (Table 3).

TABLE 2 Competitor 11 Assay Response Aroclor ® I₁₀ (mdl) (ppm) I₅₀ (ppm) 1221 2.20 45.0  1242 0.24 3.5 1248 0.18 3.5 1254 0.24 6.8 1260 0.32 7.5

TABLE 3 Selected Analytes - Competitor 11 Assay Response Analyte u^(I)10 (mdl) 1,2-dichlorobenzene NR/>100 ppm 1,3-dichlorobenzene NR/>100 ppm 1,4-dichlorobenzene NR/>100 ppm 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene NR/>100 ppm 3-chlorophenol NR/>100 ppm 2,5-dichlorophenol NR/>100 ppm 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic NR/>100 ppm acid 3-chloroanisole NR/>100 ppm NR—No Assay Response

Example 17 Inhibition ELISA Soil Analysis Demonstration

The Exemplified Competitor 11 based inhibition ELISA was used with a simple solvent extraction step (Method C), which was not recovery optimized, to demonstrate the application of the assay to the screening of soil samples for PCB contamination (Table 4). The assay has been demonstrated to be relatively free of matrix extract interferences and to readily provide a measure of PCB content in the sample of less than 5 ppm.

TABLE 4 ELISA Analysis of Soil Extracts Clay Soil l × Extracts Sample B/B₀ Aroclor 1248  0 ppm 1.02 — 0.005 ppm   1.08 ND¹ 0.05 ppm   1.08 ND 0.5 ppm  1.01 ND mdl = 0.90 B/B₀  5 ppm 0.856 3.69 sd 0.13 ppm 50 ppm 0.433 38.2 sd 3.0 ppm ¹ND—Not Detected, Below mdl (minimum detection level)

Example 18

Results using Exemplified Competitor 11 with Hapten II were similar to those obtained for Hapten I.

Example 19 Method D: Enzyme Immunoassay (EIA)

Serum stored at −20° C. was diluted 1,000-40,000 fold with PBS which contained 0.1% Tween-20. This solution was dispensed (500 μl) into goat anti-rabbit second antibody coated tubes (GAR Tubes commercially available from Millipore Corp., Bedford, Mass.) and incubated at room temperature overnight. The antisera solution was decanted from the tubes and the tubes were washed 3 times with distilled water. Non-specific sites in the tubes were blocked with 600 μl of a BSA blocking buffer (EIA Blocking Buffer commercially available from Millipore Corp., Bedford, Mass.) and incubated for 2 hours at room temperature or overnight at 4° C. The blocking buffer was decanted and the tubes allowed to dry under ambient room conditions for 2 hours or overnight. The assay was performed by adding 500 μl of assay diluent (1% methanol (v/v) and 0.005% Tween-20 (w/v) in distilled water) to the required number of tubes followed by 10 μl of a methanol solution which contained 0-50 ppm of Aroclor 1248. After a 5 minute incubation at room temperature, the solution was decanted and the tubes rinsed 3-4 times with tap water. The horseradish peroxidase-(HRP) competitor conjugate or Hapten I conjugates were diluted 100-100,000 fold from 2-5 mg/ml stock solutions in PBS with conjugate diluent (Enzyme Conjugate Diluent commercially available from Millipore Corp., Bedford, Mass.). Enzyme-competitor conjugate was added in 200 μl and the tubes were incubated at room temperature for 5 minutes. The conjugate solution was decanted and the tubes rinsed 3-4 times with tap water. Enzyme substrate solution (500 μl, KPL No. 50-76-04 commercially available from KPL Laboratories, Gaithersburg, Md.) was added and the tubes were incubated at room temperature for 3-15 minutes. The enzyme reaction was stopped with the addition of 500 μl of 1N HCl. The OD of the solution was determined at 450 nm and the I₅₀ values were determined using a correlation of Log (Aroclor 1248 Concentration in the assay solution in parts per billion=ppb) versus B/Bo ratio where B=Sample Absorbance and Bo=Absorbance of the Blank Sample.

Example 20 Synthesis of Exemplified Competitors 9 and 11-17

Exemplified Competitors 9 and 11-17 are readily available from commercial sources or via known syntheses.

Competitor Source  9 Commercial Product, Trans-World organics, Trans-World Chemicals, Inc., Chevy Chase, Maryland 11 Described in Example 12 12 Known Synthesis, reference A. Rosowsky et al., J. Hetero. Chem., 8, 789-793 (1971) 13 Known Synthesis, K. Rashid, J. Environ. Sci. Health, Part B, B22, 721-729 (1987) 14 Commercial Product, Aldrich Chemical Co. 15 Commercial Product, Aldrich Chemical Co. 16 Known Synthesis, V. Tandon et al., Indian J. Chem., Sect. B., 15B 264-266 (1977) 17 Known Synthesis, S. Kukalenko, Zh. Org. Khim, 6, 680-684 (1970)

Example 21 Preparation of Enzyme Conjugates

The competitors and Hapten I were conjugated to the enzyme, amino modified Horseradish Peroxidase (HRP) (horseradish peroxidase commercially available from Sigma Chemical Co. (No. P-6782), St. Louis, Mo.; amino modified per ref R. Hsiao and H. Royer, Archives Biochem. Biophysics, 198, 379-385 (1979) to give 6-24 free amines), using the carbodiimide mediated carboxyl activation procedure described for Hapten I in Example 5.

Example 22 Demonstration of the EIA Based on Competitor Conjugates

EIA analysis of Aroclor 1248 (Method D) was performed using horseradish peroxidase (HRP) Conjugates of the competitors illustrated in FIG. 4. Comparison of the Aroclor 1248 sensitivity of the exemplified competitors versus Hapten I assay (Table 5) demonstrates the general utility of the competitors in the development of assays with improved analyte sensitivity.

TABLE 5 Comparison of PCB EIA Sensitivity Using Selected Exemplified Competitors. Exemplified Assay Response Relative Competitor (I₅₀) (1) Response (2)  9 47 ppb 12 fold  11 18 ppb 32 fold  12 23 ppb 24 fold  13 2000 ppb  <1 fold   14 64 ppb 9 fold 15 49 ppb 12 fold  16 31 ppb 18 fold  17 33 ppb 18 fold  Homologous (Hapten I) 570 ppb  -1- (1) Defined as the assay solution concentration of Aroclor 1248 which produces a 50% reduction in the assay control signal. (2) Defined as the relative improvement in I₅₀ sensitivity compared to the homologous (Hapten I) based assay; e.g. an I₅₀ of 10 ppb is a 10 fold improvement in sensitivity relative to an I₅₀ of 100 ppb.

Examples for Immunoassays Detecting or Quantifying Toxic PCB Congeners

Example 23

Synthesis of Hapten VII

Hapten VII was prepared as shown in FIG. 5. The methoxybiphenyls (1, 2, 3, and 4) were obtained from a Cadogen coupling of 3,4-dichloroaniline and 2-chloroanisole. J. I. G. Cadogen, J. Chem. Soc., C (1966) 1249. Isomer 4 was readily separated from the crude product by flash chromatography. Isomers 1, 2, and 3, obtained as a mixture which was difficult to resolve, were carried into BBr₃ demethylation. The desired biphenylol 5 was easily obtained by flash chromatography. Biphenylol 5 was alkylated with ethyl 6-bromohexanoate to yield the ethyl ester 6. Upon isolation of the pure ester precursor, hapten VII (7) was prepared by LiOH hydrolysis of 6 at room temperature.

3,3′,4′-Trichloro-4-hydroxybiphenyl

Isoamyl nitrite (2.69 ml, 20 mmol) was added portionwise over the course of 10 minutes to a mixture of 2-chloroanisole (10.7 ml, 80 mmol) and 3,4-dichloroaniline (1.62 g, 10 mmol) at 120° C. under nitrogen and the reaction was allowed to stir for 18 hours. The excess anisole was distilled under vacuum to give a residue which was purified by flash chromatography (silica gel, 95/5 petroleum ether/methylene chloride eluent). The major fraction (TLC Rf=0.60; minor fraction Rf=0.76) was concentrated to a residue by removal of the solvent on a rotary evaporator. Minor Fraction, GC retention time=14.5 min.; Major Fraction, GC retention time=15.4, 16.0, 16.2 min.

The main fraction residue was dissolved in 10 ml of methylene chloride and 4 ml of 1 M BBr₃ in methylene chloride added. The reaction was stirred under nitrogen at room temperature for 24 hours and worked-up by the addition of ca. 10 ml of saturated potassium dihydrogen phosphate followed by removal of the aq. layer and addition of anhydrous sodium sulfate to the methylene chloride fraction. Flash chromatography (silica gel, 95/5 petroleum ether/ethyl acetate) of the residue obtained after removal of the solvent gave 91 mg (3.3% based on 3,4-dichloroaniline) of the desired compound (3) as a white solid.

TLC (petroleum ether/ethyl acetate: 95/5) Rf=0.44. ¹H NMR (200 MHz, CDCl₃) delta=7.58 (d, J=2.1 Hz, H2′), 7.50 (d, J=2.3 Hz, H2), 7.48 (d, J=8.5 Hz, H5′), 7.35 (dd, J=8.5, 2.2 Hz, H6′), 7.32 (dd, J=8.4, 2.3 Hz, H6), 7.08 (d, J=8.4 Hz, H5).

6-(3,3′,4′-Trichlorobiphenyloxy)-4-yl hexanoic acid (7, Hapten VII)

Ethyl 6-bromohexanoate (65 ul, 0.36 mmol) was added to a solution of the biphenylol (6, 91 mg, 0.33 mmol) in 15 ml of acetone. Anhydrous potassium carbonate (55 mg, 0.40 mmol) and potassium iodide (5 mg) were added and the mixture was refluxed for 18 hours. The reaction solution was filtered and evaporated to dryness to yield a crude residue. To this residue was added 6 ml of abs. ethanol and 1.25 ml of 1N LiOH. The reaction was stirred at room temperature overnight. On addition of 1.0 ml of 1N HCl, the product was obtained as a microcrystalline powder (88 mg, 69%).

TLC (petroleum ether/ethyl acetate:95/5 with 0.1% acetic acid) Rf=0.57. ¹H NMR (300 MHz, CD₃OD) delta=7.66 (d, J=2.1 Hz, H2′), 7.59 (d, J=2.3 Hz, H2), 7.52 (d, J=8.3 Hz, H5′), 7.46 (dd, J=8.3, 2.1 Hz, H6′), 7.43 (dd, J=2.3, 8.6 Hz, H6), 7.07 (d, J=8.6 Hz, H5), 4.09 (t, J=6.2 Hz, phenyl-O—CH ₂—), 2.35 (t, J=7.1 Hz, —CH ₂—COOH), 1.93-1.83 (m, phenyl-O—CH₂—CH ₂—), 1.78-1.68 (m, —CH ₂—CH₂—COOH), 1.64-1.53 (m, —CH₂—CH ₂—CH₂—). MS (EI, m/z (relative intensity)) 388 (11), 386 (M⁺, 12), 276 (29), 274 (94), 272 (100). High Resolution M.S. (EI, 70EV), C₁₈H₁₇Cl₃O₃ requires 386.0231, found 386.0237.

Example 24

Conjugation of Hapten VII

Hapten VII was conjugated to the carrier proteins keyhole limpet hemocyanin and bovine serum albumin through a carbodiimide mediated carboxyl activation procedure. Control reactions which contained hapten and protein without the activating agent were used to evaluate the efficiency of the aqueous isopropanol dialysis procedure for removal of non-covalent (vida infra) hapten from the conjugate solution. Hapten loads were assessed using a differential UV/Vis procedure. The following conjugates were prepared:

Conjugate Load Control Load Hapten VII KLH 89 — Hapten VII BSA 48 2.2

Hapten Conjugation

Hapten VII, calculated to be a 200 fold molar excess over keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH) or a 100 fold molar excess over bovine serum albumin (BSA) was dissolved in 400 ul dimethylformamide (Aldrich, gold label) and preactivated to form the n-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) ester. The activation was carried out using a 1.4 fold molar excess (calculated over the hapten) of 1-ethyl-3-[3-dimethylaminopropyl]-carbodiimide (EDC) and a 2 fold molar excess (calculated over the hapten) of NHS added dry to the hapten solution.

The carrier protein was dissolved in borate buffer (0.1 M, pH 9.4) to a final concentration of 10 mg/ml. The protein solution was allowed to stir overnight at 0-5° C. to ensure that all of the protein was dissolved. Dimethylformamide (Aldrich, gold label) was added to a concentration of 5% (v/v). The preactivated hapten solution was added to the protein solution, 10 ul at a time, every 30-60 minutes, using a 10 ul pipettor. The conjugation mixtures were allowed to stir overnight at room temperature after the hapten solution had been added.

The reaction solutions were transferred to wetted cellulose dialysis tubing (mw cutoff 12,000-14,000) and dialyzed versus 0.5-1.0 L volumes of 10% (v/v) isopropanol in phosphate buffered saline (PBS, pH 7.4) for two days, changing to fresh dialysate buffer after the first day. Controls containing no EDC showed that this method was successful in removing any nonspecifically bound hapten from the carrier protein.

The reaction solutions were then dialyzed versus 0.5-1.0 L volumes of PBS for 2 days to remove any traces of isopropanol, changing to fresh PBS after the first day. After dialysis, the conjugate solutions were collected from the dialysis tubing.

Load Determination

The moles of carrier protein were determined by the Lowry method with the use of an appropriate standard curve. O. H. Lowry, et al., J. Biol. Chem., 193, 265-275 (1954). The moles of hapten were determined using TV/Vis analysis of the conjugate and the UV/Vis spectrum of the hapten. The conjugate load was determined by dividing the moles of hapten present by the moles of carrier protein (KLH, 300,000 daltons; BSA, 67,000 daltons).

Example 25 Synthesis of Exemplified Haptens VII and XII—ETHER LINK

Exemplified Haptens VII and XII can be prepared via Cadogen (J. I. G. Cadogen, J. Chem. Soc., C 1249 (1966)) coupling of a suitable chloroaniline and a suitable chloroanisole followed by isomer resolution, demethylation to the biphenylol and preparation of the linker moiety (see Example 23).

Example 26 Synthesis of Exemplified Haptens XI and XIV—ALKYL LINK

Exemplified Hapten XIV can be prepared via Cadogen coupling of a suitable chloroaniline and a suitable chlorotoluene followed by isomer resolution to give the methyl biphenyl derivative. Preparation of the linker moiety is based on reaction of the biphenyl methyl anion with an alkyl bromide linker.

Example 27 Synthesis of Exemplified Hapten IX—AMINE and AMIDE LINK

Exemplified Hapten IX can be prepared via nitration of a suitably substituted polychlorobiphenyl followed by isolation of the desired isomer and reduction to form the amino biphenyl derivative (see M. I. Luster, et al., Toxicol. Apol. Pharmacol., 50, 147-155 (1979)). The amine can be alkylated in a stepwise sequence to produce an amine or ammonium linker or acylated to prepare the amide linker.

Example 28 Synthesis of Exemplified Hapten X and XIII—THIOETHER LINK

Exemplified Hapten X can be prepared in an analogous sequence to the ether haptens using a suitable chlorothioanisole precursor.

Example 29 Synthesis of Exemplified Hapten VIII—CARBONYL LINK

Exemplified Hapten VIII can be prepared by the Friedel-Crafts acylation of the appropriate polychlorobiphenyl followed by isolation of the desired isomer.

Example 30 Synthesis of Competitors

Competitors A-E (FIG. 6) are readily available from commercial sources or prepared via known syntheses.

Competitor and Source

A. Described in Example 31

B. Known Synthesis, V. Tandon et al., Indian J. Chem., Sect. B., 15B, 264-266 (1977)

C. Known Synthesis, S. Kukalenko, Zh. Org. Khim., 6, 680-684 (1970)

D. Known Synthesis, A. Rosowsky, et al., J. Hetero. Chem., 8, 789-793 (1971)

E. Commercial Product, Aldrich Chemical Co.

Example 31 Synthesis of Competitor A

The anion of 2,5-dichlorotoluene was reacted with trimethyl 4-bromoorthobutyrate to produce methyl 5-(2,5-dichlorophenyl)pentanoate after mild hydrolytic work-up. Competitor A was prepared by LiOH hydrolysis of the methyl ester.

Methyl 5-(2,5-dichlorophenyl)pentanoate

Diisopropylamine (841 ul, 6 mmol) was added to 20 ml of tetrahydrofuran under nitrogen atmosphere and cooled to 0° C. 5.5 ml of 2.5 N n-butyllithium (13 mmol) was added and the reaction was stirred for 20 minutes. The reaction was then cooled to −78° C. 2,5-Dichlorotoluene (642 ul, 5 mmol) was added and stirring was continued for 2 hours at −78° C. Trimethyl 4-bromoorthobutyrate (1.14 g, 5 mmol) was added to the reaction mixture in 10 ml tetrahydrofuran. The reaction was stirred for 5 minutes at −78° C., allowed to come to room temperature and stirred overnight. The reaction was worked-up by adding 10 ml of saturated KH₂PO₄, removal of most of the tetrahydrofuran on a rotary evaporator followed by partitioning of the aqueous residue between ethyl acetate and 1 N HCl. The organic phase was washed twice with 1 N HCl, once with 5% sodium bicarbonate, dried over anhydrous sodium sulfate and concentrated to a residue. Flash chromatogaphy (silica gel; hexane/toluene (39/1)) of the residue gave 1.10 g (84%; GC retention time=15.8 minutes) of a water white oil. 1H NMR (300 MHz, CDCl₃) delta=7.24 (d, J=8.5 Hz, H3), 7.18 (d, J=2.5 Hz, H6), 7.09 (dd, J=2.5, 8.5 Hz, H4), 3.66 (s, —COOCH ₃), 2.69 (t, J=7.8 Hz, Ar—CH ₂—), 2.35 (t, J=7.0 Hz, —CH ₂—COO—), 1.70-1.55 (m, —CH₂—CH ₂—CH ₂—CH₂—).

5-(2,5-dichlorophenyl)pentanoic acid (Competitor A)

Methyl 5-(2,5-dichlorophenyl)pentanoate (1.10 g, 4.2 mmol) was dissolved in 20 ml tetrahydrofuran and 7 ml methanol. 1 N LiOH (12 ml) was added dropwise and the reaction was stirred at room temperature for 2 days. The reaction was worked-up by acidification with 2 N HCl and removal of most of the tetrahydrofuran and methanol on a rotary evaporator followed by extraction of the aqueous residue with ethyl acetate. The organic phase was washed with water and saturated brine, dried over anhydrous sodium sulfate and concentrated to a residue. Flash chromatogaphy (silica gel; hexane/toluene (19/1) with 1% acetic acid) of the residue gave 725 mg (70%) of a white solid. ¹H NMR (200 MHz, CD₃OD) delta=7.30-7.26 (m, H3, H6), 7.14 (dd, J=2.6, 8.4 Hz, H4), 2.70 (t, J=7.2 Hz, Ar—CH ₂—), 2.30 (t, J=7.0 Hz, —CH ₂—COOH), 1.67-1.57 (m, —CH₂—CH ₂—CH ₂—CH₂—); MS (EI, m/z (relative intensity)) 248 (29), 246 (M⁺, 45), 167 (31), 165 (97), 161 (66), 159 (100); exact mass calculated for C₁₁H₁₂Cl₂O₂, [M]⁺ 246.0213, found 246.0210.

Example 32 Synthesis of Exemplified Competitors 12, 18 and 21—THIOETHER LINK

Exemplified thioether competitors can be prepared by alkylation of the appropriate chlorothiophenol or chlorothiobiphenylol with an alkyl bromide linker.

Example 33 Synthesis of Exemplified Competitors 13, 17, 22 and 23—ETHER LINK

Exemplified ether competitors can be prepared by alkylation of the appropriate chlorophenol or chlorobiphenylol with an alkyl bromide linker.

Example 34 Synthesis of Exemplified Competitors 14, 15, 16 and 24—ALKYL LINK

Exemplified alkyl competitors can be prepared from the chlorotoluene or methylchlorobiphenyl by an anion based reaction (Example 21).

Example 35 Synthesis of Exemplified Competitors 19 and 25—CARBONYL LINK

Exemplified carbonyl competitors can be prepared by Friedel-Crafts acylation of the appropriate chlorobenzene or chlorobiphenyl followed by isolation of the desired isomer.

Example 36 Synthesis of Exemplified Competitors 20 and 26—ALKENE LINK

Exemplified alkene competitors can be prepared by Aldol condensation of the appropriate chloroacetophenone or chlorobiphenyl methyl ketone with a pendant aldehyde linker derivative.

Example 37 Synthesis of Competitor BSA Conjugates

The competitors A-E (FIG. 6) were conjugated to the carrier protein, BSA, using the carbodiimide mediated carboxyl activation procedure described for Hapten VII (Method 2). Competitor loads were determined by UV/Vis spectroscopy, also as described for Hapten VII.

Example 38 Synthesis of Hapten VII and Competitor Enzyme Conjugates

The competitors A-E and Hapten VII were conjugated to the enzyme, amino modified Horseradish Peroxidase (HRP) (horseradish peroxidase commercially available from Sigma Chemical Co. (No. P-6782), St. Louis, Mo.; amino modified per R. Hsiao and H. Royer, Archives Biochem. Biophys., 198, 379-385 (1979) to give 6-24 free amines), using the carbodiimide mediated carboxyl activation procedure described for Hapten VII in Example 24. Hapten and competitor load were determined by UV/Vis spectroscopy, also as described for Hapten VII.

Example 39

Immunization

Four mice each of three strains (Swiss Webster, Biozzi and B10.Q) were immunized with the Hapten VII KLH conjugate. The immunizing doses of approximately 50 ug of conjugate (as carrier protein) in 0.08 ml of physiological saline, emulsified with one mouse dose of Titermax adjuvant (Vaxcel, Inc., Norcross, Ga.), were delivered subcutaneously in 3 or 4 sites on the back of the mouse. Identical doses were given 7, 22, 106 and 133 days after the initial injection. Serum samples were taken from the tail vein.

Example 40

Method A: Indirect EIA

The indirect EIA (immobilized competitor BSA conjugate) was performed as described by Karu, et al. (A. E. Karu, et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 42, 301-309 (1994)).

Example 41

Method B: Direct EIA

The direct EIA (immoblized antibody and competitor enzyme conjugate) was performed as follows. Serum or monoclonal antibody supernatant stored at −20° C. was diluted 1,000-40,000 fold with PBS which contained 0.1% Tween-20. This solution was dispensed (500 ul) into donkey anti-mouse second antibody coated tubes (DAM Tubes commercially available from Millipore Corp., Bedford, Mass.) and incubated at room temperature overnight. The antisera solution was decanted from the tubes and the tubes washed 3 times with distilled water. Non-specific sites in the tubes were blocked with 600 ul of BSA blocking buffer (EIA Blocking Buffer commercially available from Millipore Corp., Bedford, Mass.) and incubated for 2 hours at room temperature or overnight at 4° C. The blocking buffer was decanted and the tubes allowed to dry under ambient room conditions for at least 2 hours. The assay was performed by adding 500 ul of assay diluent (1% methanol (v/v) and 0.005% Tween-20 (w/v) in distilled water) to the required number of tubes followed by 10 ul of a methanol solution of the analyte (PCB congener). After a 5 minute incubation at room temperature, the solution was decanted and the tubes rinsed 3-4 times with tap water. The horseradish peroxidase competitor or Hapten VII conjugates were diluted 1,000-60,000 fold from 2-5 mg/ml stock solutions in PBS with conjugate diluent (Enzyme Conjugate Diluent commercially available from Millipore Corp., Bedford, Mass.). The enzyme conjugate (200 ul) was added to the tubes followed by a 5 minute incubation at room temperature. The conjugate solution was decanted and the tubes rinsed 3-4 times with tap water. Enzyme substrate solution (500 ul, KPL No. 50-76-04 commercially available from KPL Laboratories, Gaithersburg, Md.) was added and the tubes were incubated at room temperature for 5-15 minutes. The enzyme reaction was stopped with the addition of 500 ul of 1N HCl. The OD of the solution was determined at 450 nm. The data was plotted using Log (Congener Concentration) versus B/Bo (B=Sample Absorbance, Bo=Sample Blank Absorbance).

Example 42 Demonstration of the Sera Anti-Hapten Response

Anti-hapten titers were determined using serum samples taken on day 29 and the indirect EIA (Method 18). All of the sera had high titers (signal at dilutions >50,000) which demonstrated that a strong anti-hapten antibody response could be produced with this hapten.

Example 43 Demonstration of a Sera Indirect EIA Based on a Competitor Conjugate

The indirect EIA (Method 18) was used to evaluate sera samples taken on day 120. FIG. 7 demonstrates that a sensitive (3,3′,4,4′-tetrachlorobiphenyl analyte; I₅₀<10 ppb) and congener specific (2,2′,4,4′,5,5′-hexachlorobiphenyl analyte; cross-reaction relative to 3,3′,4,4′-tetrachlorobiphenyl <0.0%) immunoassay can be developed using Hapten VII sera and Competitor C (FIG. 7).

Example 44 Demonstration of a Sera Direct EIA Based on a Competitor Conjugate

The direct EIA (Method 19) was used to evaluate sera samples taken on day 120. FIG. 8 demonstrates that this format will produce sensitivity (3,3′,4,4′-tetrachlorobiphenyl analyte; I₅₀=1.4 ppb) and congener specificity (2,2′,4,4′,5,5′hexachlorobiphenyl analyte; cross reaction relative to 3,3′,4,4′-tetrachlorobiphenyl <0.05%) which is comparable to the indirect assay for Hapten VII sera and competitor C. Table 6 demonstrates that Competitors A, B, C and D produce assays which are significantly more sensitive than the Hapten VII enzyme conjugate based assay.

TABLE 6 Comparison of Competitor Derived 3,3′,4,4′-tetrachlorobiphenyl EIA Sensitivities Using a Hapten VII Sera COMPETITOR I₅₀ (ppb) Hapten VII (7) 30-40 Competitor A 6-8 Competitor B 3.5 Competitor D 3   Competitor C 1.5

Table 7 demonstrates that a direct EIA based on the Hapten VII sera and Competitor D has good specificity for 3,3′,4,4′-tetrachlorobiphenyl versus several congeners which are significant Aroclor(R) constitutents.

TABLE 7 Congener Cross-reactions for a Hapten VII Sera and Competitor D Direct EIA. ANALYTE I₅₀ (ppb) 3,3′,4,4′-tetrachloro      3 4,4′-dichloro    4,300 2,2′,5,5′-tetrachloro >20,000 2,2′,4,4′,5,5′-hexachloro >20,000

Example 45 Preparation of a Monoclonal Antibody

Monoclonal antibodies were derived essentially as described by Karu, et al. (A. E. Karu, et al., J. Agric. Food Chem., 42, 301-309 (1994)) using Hapten VII BSA conjugate and Competitor C BSA conjugate for the primary screen.

Example 46 Demonstration of a Monoclonal Antibody Direct EIA Based on a Competitor Conjugate

FIG. 9 illustrates the specificity of a direct EIA based on the Hapten VII derived monoclonal antibody S2B1 and Competitor D enzyme conjugate. Both 3,3′,4,4′-tetrachlorobiphenyl and 3,3′,4,4′,5-pentachlorobiphenyl give ca. 1 ppb I₅₀ values. Cross-reactions of a number of congeners which are significant Aroclor(R) consitutents are <0.001%. 

We claim:
 1. A method for determining qualitatively or quantitatively the presence of a toxic congener of polychlorinated biphenyl in a test sample comprising the steps of: A) providing a known quantity of antibodies to a toxic PCB congener comprising a congener lacking any chlorine substituent ortho to the bond linking the phenyl groups, a congener having only one chlorine substituent ortho to the biphenyl link or a combination thereof; B) providing a competitor that will bind to said antibodies in competition with the toxic PCB congener; wherein said competitor has one of the following structures:

 wherein (a) A is selected from the group consisting of —NH₃—, —S—, —O—, —CH₂—, —C(O)—, —CH═CH—, —NH—C(O)—, —C(O)—NH—, —NH—C(O)—NH—, —NH—C(S)—NH—, —N(CH₃)—, —N(CH₃)₂—, and —OC(S)NH—; A′ is selected from the group consisting of —S—, —CH₂—, —C(O)—, —CH═CH—, and —C(O)—NH—; (b) B is a single bond or an organic or inorganic linking group capable of forming covalent bonds with A and C simultaneously; (c) C is selected from the group consisting of —CO₂H, —NH₂, —CHO, and —OH; (d) Y and Y′ are selected from the group consisting of —H and —Cl; with the priviso that no more than one of Y and Y′ is —Cl; (e) n=0-5; (f) p=0-3; and (g) q=0-4; C) incubating said antibodies and said competitor in the presence of a test sample; and D) detecting the presence of the toxic PCB congener in the test sample.
 2. The method of claim 1 wherein the toxic PCB congener is selected from the group consisting of: 3,3′,4,4′-tetrachlorobiphenyl; 3,4,4′,5-tetrachlorobiphenyl; 2,3,3′,4,4′-pentachlorobiphenyl; 2,3,4,4′,5-pentachlorobiphenyl; 2,3′,4,4′,5-pentachlorobiphenyl; 3,3′,4,4′,5-pentachlorobiphenyl; 2,3,3′,4,4′,5-hexachlorobiphenyl; 2,3,3′,4,4′,5′-hexachlorobiphenyl; 2,3′,4,4′,5,5′-hexachlorobiphenyl; 3,3′,4,4′,5,5′-hexachlorobiphenyl; 2,3,3′,4,4′,5,5′-heptachlorobiphenyl; and combinations thereof.
 3. The method of claim 1 wherein A is selected from the group consisting of —NH—, —O—, —C(O)—, —CH═CH—, —NH—C(O)—, —NH—C(O)—NH—, —NH—C(S)—NH—, and —OC(S)NH—.
 4. The method of claim 1 wherein A or A′ is —C(O)— or —C═C—.
 5. The method of claim 1 wherein the competitor has the general structure of Formula I.
 6. The method of claim 1 wherein B is a C₁-C₁₀ alkyl, or C₁-C₁₀ alkyl including —S—, —NH—, or 1-4 nonperoxide —O—.
 7. The method of claim 1 wherein said competitor is bound to a solid support.
 8. The method of claim 1 wherein said competitor is bound to a protein.
 9. The method of claim 1 wherein the step of detecting the presence of the toxic PCB congener comprises an enzymatic label.
 10. The method of claim 9 wherein the step of detecting the presence of the toxic PCB congener is an enzyme immunoassay determination.
 11. The method of claim 1 wherein said antibodies are prepared by inoculating a host animal with a hapten-protein complex, wherein the hapten has the following structure and collecting the serum or preparing monoclonal antibodies from the host animal:

wherein (a) L is selected from the group consisting of —NH—, —S—, —O—, —CH₂—, —CO—, —CH═CH—, —NH—C(O)—, —C(O)—NH—, —NH—C(O)—NH—, —NH—C(S)—NH—, —N(CH₃)—, —N(CH₃)₂—, and —OC(S)NH—; (b) M is a single bond or an organic or inorganic linking group capable of forming covalent bonds with L and N simultaneously; (c) N is selected from the group consisting of —CO₂H, —NH₂, —CHO, and —OH; (d) Y and Y′ are selected from the group consisting of —H and —Cl, with the proviso that no more than one of Y and Y′ is —Cl; (e) p=0-3; and (f) q=0-4.
 12. The method of claim 11 wherein the hapten is covalently bound to a protein.
 13. The method of claim 11 wherein the hapten is bound to a solid support for use in the preparation of affinity purified antibody fractions. 